Wearing Fringes on the Fringe

Fashion and Uniformity in Hippie Culture and Cult Communities of the 1960s

Rosa Bilston, '25

Issue: 2

The American 1960s is a period that is synonymous with freedom, peace, and love in contemporary popular consciousness. A new generation of youth, who called themselves “hippies,” used clothing to express their rejection of the past: styles centered around individual pieces (not mass-produced) that were free, comfortable, flowing, and often fringed, a very different look from the structured styles of mainstream America in the 1950s. Hippies also encouraged androgyny in clothing and took inspiration from Eastern styles in a look that did not aim to showcase wealth, believing that Eastern religions shunned physical possessions. They referred to their apparent spiritual enlightenment through their bodies and recycled clothes.1 Despite hippies’ focus on individuality, however, members of some of the largest and most iconic cults of the time were hippies. Hippies desired to be free from social constructs, and rejected many of the values and norms of their society; ironically, this left them vulnerable to the exploitation of cults, who imposed uniforms on their members to enforce their own norms instead.2 While at first glance, some of these uniforms looked like relatively standard hippie outfits – much like the rest of the subculture – photographs and other primary sources reveal that the cults standardized these uniforms across the whole group to encourage conformity. Cults created the very structure that hippies wanted to reject and used clothing to enforce a collective identity, ironically the very thing hippies dreaded.

The Rise of Hippie Culture in the 1960s

The post-war generation of young adults, coming of age in the 1960s, had grown up in the 1950s in a new age of consumerism.3 In a period of economic boom, new inventions such as better cars and domestic products such as refrigerators were produced, and over half of the US was middle class. Family values were more important than ever, especially after the chaos of war, and there was a deepened sense of the role of women and men,meaning, what they should do, how they should behave, and what they should buy. Returning men’s anxieties about losing their jobs were reinforced by a government that aimed to return the nation to the values of a pre-war era, such as women returning to traditional domestic roles, and men returning to demanding office jobs.4 Children of the age had also grown up during the early years of the Cold War, a period of deep anxiety about what nuclear bombs meant for society. The children of the 1950s spent their time diving under desks during nuclear drills and watching news releases about the Korean War. Many of these young people grew up angry at their government, which they saw as inciting violence, and that dissent would become a central part of the identity of the “hippie.” This is epitomized in the famous war protest song Where Have All The Flowers Gone by Peter Seeger. Though written in 1955, this song became a favorite of the hippies a decade later. The song sadly sings a lament to the fallen soldier, and the cycle of war and death:

Where have all the flowers gone?

Long time passing…

Where have all the youngmen gone?

Gone to be soldiers, every one

Long time ago…where have all the soldiers gone?

Gone to graveyards everyone…

Where have all the graveyards gone?

Gone to flowers, every one

When will they ever learn?5

This song became popular because hippies were upset with what they saw as “endless wars that never ended.” The song was even sung by hippies at “Funeral for the Hippie” in 1967 , which shows how popular it was throughout the entire movement.6 Hippies grew up during a time of political and international struggles, which were still not resolved by the late 1960s.

Young adults in the 1960s, rejecting much of the values of the era before them, created a new movement of free-spirited individuals called “hippies.” This term is now thought to refer to a young type of person living during the 1960s. Yet, interestingly, in the early 1960s “Hippie” was used to describe a style of short skirt that showed a young woman’s hips. An article in 1965 reports that “Campus Savants know that the way to show off a good pair of legs is to skim on a hip little short skirt, or better yet, make it a short little hip skirt. They're called “Hippies” and ride low on the hip and high on the leg.” Appendix A shows an advertisement for one of these ‘hippie’ skirts, pitched in the same newspaper. The skirt is short, and is typical of 1960s designs, showing off the legs.7 Over the course of the 1960s, the meaning of the term “Hippie” developed, and by 1967, Hippies were known as being in favor of sexual revolution, experimenting with drugs and religion.8 Hippies’ short dresses also reflected that they were a part of the sexual revolution - meaning, women were willing to show more skin, more of their bodies.9 The stigma around sex was becoming less embedded in society partly too because of the Pill - women could now engage in sex without necessarily having children.10

Appendix A

"Harris Show to Feature Campus Fashions," The San Bernardino County Sun (San Bernardino, California, United States), August 8, 1965, 10.

Many young people of the 1960s also rebelled against the consumerism of the decade before. Many Hippies believed that consumerism made people care more about appearing rich than anything else, and it would be the downfall of society. Consumerism, hippies believed, resulted directly in environmental decay, political unrest, and an emphasis on conformity.11 Hippies worked hard to try and not be affected by consumerism. For example, some hippies would beg for food or money. If someone came to them needing a place to sleep, they would often be allowed to stay free of charge.12 Community houses were a common phenomenon, as they served as lodging for young people in hippie communities, and these also were a way to show the outsiders that hippies did not care about money.13 Don S, a person who used to live in a community house in Haight Ashbury, a community in San Francisco, California, says of his house: “We had all kinds of people there at first and anybody could stay if there was room. Anybody could crash out there.”14 As this suggests, many Hippies did all that they could to try and reject the idea that money was needed to live a good life. However, as Don S. remembers, often community houses could also become a microcosm of society, with struggles over resources: “Some of the motorcycle types began to congregate in the kitchen. That became their room, and if you wanted to get something to eat or a beer you had to step over them. Pretty soon, in a way, people were cut off from the food.”15 This passage reveals that despite the ways that Hippies tried to reject consumerism by creating a society where everything was free and open, it often didn't work, as old values affected people, and a desire for self-preservation set in. Despite the hippies' attempt to create a culture where everything was free, and consumerism was rejected, they soon found that this was not as easy as they would have liked.

Hippies felt that the generations before them propagated many societal norms that forced the young individual to be unfree, inauthentic, and shallow. To formally declare this, in 1966, a group of residents in the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco released A Prophecy of a Declaration of Independence. It stated as follows;

We hold these experiences to be self-evident, that all is equal, that the creation endows us with certain inalienable rights, that among these are: the freedom of the body, the pursuit of joy, and expansion of consciousness . . . . To secure these rights, we the citizens of the earth declare our love and compassion.16

This document summarizes the goals and desires of its writers and also reveals how their goals and desires were shaped by American culture, as they mimic the Declaration of Independence, even though they wanted to reject them. Hippies believed that American youth were unfree because they were forced to follow strict social rules that restricted their individuality, suffocating young voices. They found society inauthentic because it seemed to them to merely act out the “right way” to live, which did not allow for individuals to be authentically themselves. Finally, they believed that society was shallow, and cared more about keeping up appearances of social conformity than thinking for oneself. In Bob Dylan's 1964 classic The Times, They Are A’Changin, Dylan sings of the ways the world of older generations was slowly disappearing, making way for a new world. In one verse, he addresses the parents of the new generation, telling them to accept the changes that are happening in America:

“Come mothers and fathers throughout th e land

And don't criticize what you can't understand

Your sons and your daughters are beyond your command

Your old road is rapidly agin ’

Please get out of the new one if you can't lend your hand

For the times, they are a-changin'”17

This song, written early in the decade, set the tone for the next few years. Bob Dylan, and his music, were much beloved by young people in the 1960s. As one newspaper put it, he was the “Poet Laureate of the Era.”18 Hippies resented what they saw as the “unnatural” way of life of those around them, shunning the industrial, consumerist, violent world around them in favor of a more “natural” way of life which encouraged the pursuit of pleasure, as opposed to a desire for money or social prowess.19 In practice, this became a large part of how Hippies lived their lives. Hippies supported the action of “Just being,” which meant they spent their days “meandering” around, not focusing on the pursuit of social prestige or a well-paying job .20

Hippies took inspiration from other cultures, too, as part of their rejection of mainstream, US-based culture. If the 1950s was a time of embracing a positive, American, hard-working culture, many in the 1960s chose instead to look around the world and see value elsewhere. This led to hippies appropriating other cultures, for instance, such as Indian religions and clothing.21 The end of World War I and the creation of the United Nations meant that the world was in some sense smaller than ever before. This was reinforced by the media, too - more families had televisions and people were introduced to new cultures in their homes.22 Eastern Religions and philosophies were particularly important to the hippie movement, even a central part of the movement – the version of these philosophies that was co-opted by hippies was one of peace, calm, love, and meditation.23 India and Bangladesh, recently (since 1946) freed from the British Empire, were newly visible to the US, and travelers from India set up as gurus and spiritual guides. Part of the appeal of eastern Mysticism was its focus on peace and meditation, something that attracted many hippies.24 Of course, this involved ignoring the complex histories of other nations – still, many hippies turned to countries in Eastern Asia to seek out enlightenment, partly as a way of expressing their detachment from the US. Yet, as in the credo above which referenced the Declaration of Independence, the urge to seem different was still expressed in ways that were produced by the culture itself.

It is important to note that, even though they stressed that they were making a revolution, hippies were often white, middle-class, and highly educated, with hippies themselves saying they were “making a revolution in middle class values.”25 “The center of the hippie community was Haight-Ashbury in San Francisco, California, an American hub for hippie communities that attracted middle-class teens. Young people left their parents in search of new lives: for instance, The Delta Democrat-Times reported on 27 August, 1967, on the pattern of teens moving to Haight-Ashbury in an article entitled “Migrating Hippies Are Just Runaway Children to Parents.” Joan Cook quoted a recent advertisement:

“Georgia Prieto, please contact your mother. If anyone knows Georgia, please tell her to contact her mother.” This ad, which appeared recently in the Personal Column of the East Village Other, is similar to hundreds that have been published around the country this summer, and is indicative of the problem of runaway children . . . So many forlorn parents are trying to get in touch with missing children that a new underground paper, The Middle Class Standard, has joined the ranks of publications in San Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury district, the number one mecca for migrating hippies.26

This article shows that hippies were attracting people from as far as New York to leave their parents and families and go West to San Francisco, seeking enlightenment and new community. With this new movement, a new style developed which signaled to outsiders the values of the hippie community.

Hippies and Clothing in the 1960s

One way in which hippies expressed their differences was through clothing styles and practices. First, they tended not to buy clothes.27 They liked reworked, recycled clothing, made by them or by someone they knew. Appendix B and C are both reworked, handmade denim pieces: the pair of jeans in Appendix C have an embroidered note inside the waistband that says “lovingly created by Linda Sampson for Jay Good.” Both are completely unique and individual styles that could not be bought in any store. The jeans combine a host of materials to create a collage-like effect and are obviously handmade – not a style that was considered “classy” by the dominant culture. Including mushrooms is also a nod to the values of hippie culture. Hippie clothing often took inspiration from LSD use.28 (The use of LSD was encouraged in many hippie communities since it was legal at the time, and was an important part of hippie culture, as they believed that LSD would help them gain spiritual enlightenment.)29 Denim was also popular because of its durability and utility. It lasted a long time and was, at the time, considered by many a working-class fabric at a time when middle-class men still wore suits. Hippies embraced denim because it was not yet mainstream as an everyday style.

Appendix B

Brand: Landlubber, "Skirt," JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.12219040.

Appendix C

Brand: Levi Strauss & Co., "Man's Jeans," JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.12219444.

Also, as part of their rejection of strict gender roles of the 1950s, hippies wore androgynous clothes while men and women had long hair. An article from the Salt Lake Tribune wrote of a growing hippie community in Utah in 1969, reporting that “A small car (of hippies) pulls up to the curb and a handful of bearded young men get out, their hair is shaggy, and their baggy clothing ragged, their feet bare or sandaled.” Appendix D is a photograph of a group of hippies smiling happily for the camera; their hair is unkempt, their clothing untraditional. 30 Hippies made it their business to look like everything a formal housewife or working man of the 1950s would hate in their grooming as well as their clothes. Hippies often wore whatever they could find around them. Their preferred shoes were sandals, and they wore their hair long and uncombed. Often the style was completed with a long string of beads made from wood or plastic. These beads were not expensive and therefore were used to signal to those around them that Hippies did not care about the monetary value of their clothing.31

Appendix D

Gordon MacNah, "Hippie Commune Creates Fear, Distrust in Oregon Village," The Salt Lake Tribune (Salt Lake City, Utah, United States), April 27, 1969, [Page 10].

Hippies liked flowing dresses, too, because they valued comfort, and again wanted to look different from mainstream America. This style of clothing was very different from the rigid and tailored clothes of the 1950s.32 Appendix E shows a structured dress from 1959. The dress is very stiff, with darts that are made to fit a woman perfectly. It would have been made from a thick and restrictive fabric such as wool, which would have been necessary in order to maintain the garment's structure. A tight skirt would have made the dress difficult to walk in, and the skirt's hem is at a “respectable” length, not too short. Clothing items like this were exactly what hippies rebelled against. They resented the structure of clothing passed down from the previous generation.33 1950s garb restricted the wearer, and designers used stiff fabrics to create rigid dresses, which gave way to more flowy styles due to hippies’ emphasis on comfort, movement, and sexual freedom.

Appendix E

Columbus Daily Enquirer (Columbus, Georgia), December 31, 1959, 6, America's Historical Newspapers.

Some hippies also wore Buddhist-style Japa beads, long pendants, and wood – these again were very different from the standard pearl necklace of the 1950s.34 Appendix F shows a woman in Vogue from 1950 wearing a structured purple suit and pearls. A small string of pearls was almost uniform for women of the 1950s and was used to show wealth and social status.35 The point of beads was not to show off wealth but to point to your difference (Appendix F). Fashion and clothing were not merely a superficial product of hippie culture, but they were crucial in allowing hippies to visually show outsiders that hippies were a united community.

Appendix F

Serge Balkin, Model Standing, Wearing a Dress, March 15, 1950, photograph, ARTstor.

Hippie Culture, the Rise of the Cult, and The Use of Fashion

Cults often spring up and gain membership in times of political and social unrest.36 The 1960s was, as already discussed, a period of intense political and social struggle. Cults thrive when young people search for a larger entity to guide them that is not the dominant society. Cults are authoritarian and have charismatic leaders who are adept at convincing people that they are the ones who can lead young people to what they want - whether salvation, safety from the wrath of God, increased spirituality, and understanding of the universe. Cult leaders persuade young people they will deliver what they need in life. Ironically, young people seeking purpose in the 1960s were particularly susceptible to a charismatic leader who promised to give their lives meaning and seemed to understand their struggles and rejection of violence.

Not all hippie communities were cults. A definition of cults is necessary to set the terms for the rest of this analysis, but “cult” is a complicated term and phenomenon. Scholars disagree on an exact definition, but most agree that for a movement to be a cult, it must fulfill certain requirements.37 Robert S. Ellewood’s definition is as follows – that a cult is:

1. A group that "presents a distinct alternative to dominant patterns

within the society in fundamental areas of religious life." This includes a

small size with "distinctly different" forms of belief and practice, carried

on by a uniquely organized group

2. Possesses "strong authoritarian and charismatic leadership."

3. Oriented toward "inducing powerful subjective experiences and

meeting personal needs."

4. Is "separatist in that it strives to maintain distinct boundaries

between it and the 'outside, "' and "requiring a high degree of conformity

and commitment."

5. Has a tendency "to see itself as legitimated by a long tradition of wis-

dom or practice of which it is the current manifestation."38

The cult is organized by and around a single, manipulative leader – unlike general hippie culture. Hippie culture was about freeing its members from those who were controlling them, whether that be parents, school, or society. The intrinsic idea of hippie culture was that there was no one with control over other people. Cults, on the other hand, function around a charismatic leader who dictates how the cult members should live. The existence of a manipulative leader, within a hippie community, is what tipped the scales from its being a hippie community into a cult.

Many hippie communities were merely groups of people who lived together for various reasons, from artistic compounds to free-thinking communities in San Francisco. But in some cases, young people who had left home, claiming to want to give up on structure and to find a world without social class, violence, and war, found themselves attracted to charismatic cult leaders who, while promising everything that a young hippie wanted, in fact, enforced strict hierarchical rules to serve their own purpose. Cults force their members to follow many types of rules: for instance, cult leaders often use sex to control members, whether male or female. Restricting food and access to the outside world are also common tactics used by many cult leaders. Cults also rely on members to enforce rules on one another, encouraging spying and telling on other members in order to keep people in check.39

One of the most infamous cults of the 1960s was the Charles Manson Cult, whose two-day murder spree resulted in the death of five people in August 1969. Charles Manson’s cult lived in a place called The Farm. He had mainly female cult members who engaged in sexual acts with him. His cult was a supposedly Christian cult that encouraged free love: Manson claimed he was a reincarnation of Jesus Christ, and that white people must fight against people of color in order to save themselves from annihilation.40 Even before the “Manson Murders,” Manson's cult was making headlines, for other disturbing behavior, as seen in a headline in the Oakland Tribune in 1968 stating that “14 Nude Hippies Found Beside A Wayward Bus.” The article detailed how one of the people found was a newborn child, and the bus had been stolen from the Haight Ashbury Neighborhood in San Francisco.41 The Manson cult’s members were former hippies, who were drawn in by a manipulative cult leader.

Cult leaders also recognized that uniforms are intrinsic to successful group operations. Uniforms encourage members to feel similar, part of the same group. It encourages conformity and a desire to uplift the group and not just one’s interest. Uniforms make the wearer feel as if they belong in a given situation and community. Studies have shown, for instance, that uniformed Japanese office workers work harder, feel more connected to their colleagues, and care more about the success of their company and employer. They are even willing to give more time to their employer.42

Cult leaders enforced uniforms for their followers, in order to take advantage of the power of the uniform. While a uniform could look like typical hippie garb, the difference was that cult members all wore the exact same hippie outfit. Manson’s cult followers, for instance, wore clothing which reflected a pastoral style - they wore flowy dresses and were barefoot - a style associated with hippies. But they all wore the same clothing: in Appendix G, three female Manson followers on the way into court to defend Manson, are all wearing a purplish white, flowy dress and blue cardigan. The three are also very slightly different, expressing a certain individuality, but within limits. This was typical of the Manson cult. It insisted on very feminine clothes, with long flowing hair. On the one hand, the clothes express rejection of the social norms in mainstream America (or at least by the women of the parents’ generation) - but on the other hand, the cult has its own uniform, which the members are forced to, or brainwashed into wearing. The cult thus ultimately, and ironically, creates the very societal problems it claims it frees members from. Cults promise their members that they give meaning to their members’ lives. In actuality, they create an isolated environment where they convince their subscribers that they are being saved from a harmful society. Cults convince their young members that they can detach themselves from “regular” society by isolating them from it, something that hippies were attracted to, thus exploiting hippies’ desire to break away.43 In the photograph, the three women are smiling, showing their complete devotion to Manson, despite the fact that they are headed to court and that the cult had killed five people in two days.

Appendix G

Thomson Reuters, "Where Charles Manson's cult followers are now," CBC, November 20, 2017, https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/charles-manson-family-cult-followers-1.4409873.

Another cult that had a strict uniform and philosophy was the Hare Krishnas. But their very different goals were expressed in very different uniforms. This cult, led by A.C Bhaktivedanta Swami, or "the Swami" as he was known by his followers, began in India during the early 1960s. People from all over the world, especially America, traveled overseas to learn from the guru about how to achieve heightened spirituality. He preached a quasi-religious practice and had very strong opinions about how to live, how to think, how to breathe. His compound had a large emphasis on the importance of community and his goal was to create an independent, self-sufficient community that grew its own food, produced art, and listened to his lectures.44 “The Swami” was known for being an incredible public speaker, and he viewed himself as a transmitter of spiritual knowledge.45 Eventually, in1965, Bhaktivedanta Swami moved the cult to New York and then again to Haight Ashbury San Francisco in 1967.46 This is when the Hare Krishnas became a massive community, establishing chapters across the country. Swami bought a lot of land and moved the community to the US and in 1970 attempted to establish a temple in Salt Lake City, Utah.

The different uniforms of this cult are described in the Daily Utah Chronicle on 16 October 1970;

With shaved heads and clad in Oriental dress consisting of yellow and orange shoulder robes over white suit coats, barefoot and necks dangling with ornaments, missionaries from the Hare Krishna movement have been visiting the University campus and preaching on downtown street corners.47

The cult used saffron-colored robes, draped in Grecian styles, taking inspiration from traditional Indian garments, such as kurtas, that focused on draped fabrics. This created a look, an aesthetic, to show that members were a part of the group. But the style was very different from the Manson Cult, which focused on very feminine styles. The Hare Krishna group focused on androgyny in their look - men and women wore quite similar clothes, quite shapeless toga-like garments. The Hare Krishna also took inspiration from Hinduism and Buddhism and from monks’ clothing while the Manson Cult clothing was more designed around the pastoral. While Charles Manson's compound used extremely feminine uniforms for women, perhaps because Manson was using the girls for sex, the Hare Krishnas “refrained from sexual activities because they believe that sex makes one accept temporary happiness in place of spiritual bliss.”48

Many cults preached against consumerism, but cults like the Hare Krishnas turned Eastern philosophies into a product that could be bought. During the 1960, many cults that took inspiration from Eastern culture arose, such as the Hare Krishnas, TM, the Divine Light Mission, and the Manson Cult.49 Cults such as the Hare Krishnas sold Eastern philosophy to young white hippies, who embraced the new manufactured style, despite how they ironically rejected manufactured mainstream styles.50 Again, this can be seen in Appendix H, where a group of female followers are photographed in 1967 wearing Japa beads around their necks.51 Hare Krishnas wore an “exotic” uniform that showed how they obviously rejected mainstream American culture.52 Ironically, despite their deep need to rebel against their parents and their parents’ world, many hippies were pulled into a culture more cynical than the one they were trying to escape. By all dressing the same, they ended up creating the very same issues and conforming to the values they hoped to escape.

Appendix H

E. Burke Rochford, Jr, "Aligning Hare Krishna," in Nova Religio, previously published in University of California Press 22 (November 1, 2018), Project MUSE.

In 1967, at the end of the Summer of Love, Hippies staged a mock “Funeral of Hippie” where they burned Hippie clothes in a ceremony. In Appendix I, a printed sign reads “Funeral Notice: HIPPIE. In the Haight Ashbury District of this city. Hippie, devoted son of Mass Media. Friends are invited to attend service beginning at sunrise, October 6, 1967 at Buena Vista Park.”53 LSD was made illegal in 1968, and more dangerous drugs made their way into Haight Ashbury, as more and more people fled the San Francisco community. Many Hippies no longer felt safe in their communities due to increased drug use, crime, and sexual violence. To seal the nail on the coffin of the hippie, public opinion on hippies turned from skeptical to fearful after highly publicized events such as the Manson murders, and hippie culture became associated with dangerous cults.54

Appendix I

UC Santa Cruz, "Death of Hippie: An End to the Summer of Love," University Library, last modified 2014, accessed March 30, 2024, https://exhibits.library.ucsc.edu/exhibits/show/love-on-haight/death-of-hippie#:~:text=Death%20of%20Hippie%20was%20a,underground%20newspapers%20and%20hippie%20clothing.

Hippies’ clothes died with them, making way for the sequined styles of the next decade. Denim, of course, remained and is used as day-wear to this day (not just by people who do manual labor). But their fringes and tie-dye would not come back for another forty years. Of course, clothing goes out of style as a new generation scoffs at the older generation. As the hippie culture died, the hippie clothing was no longer cool and was even associated with cults - with long-haired women laughing as they are led to trial for murder.

Cults, however, have outlived the hippie. The Hare Krishnas remain active, despite many scandals such as a public confession to the sexual abuse of minors in 1998.55 While clothes go out of style, the way that humans interact with each other does not change so easily. Leather fringe and peasant blouses may just be a fad, but cults have always been a part of society and will continue to take advantage of people searching for meaning. While fashion can be used by various groups to control others, it will also always be used for true self-expression. Hippies, after all, wanted nothing more than to be truly themselves, and many achieved that goal. Clothing and fashion are often dismissed by people in our culture as being frivolous and unnecessary. However, the use of fashion during the 1960s shows that it is anything but: the power of fashion can be used for good or evil, either allowing for an individual to express their unique personality and identity, or used to encourage and even force conformity upon a group of confused subjects.

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Footnotes

[1] Steven Neuberg and Neal Lester, interview, Project Humanities.

[2] Alex Esculapio, "CULT STATUS," VESTOJ, accessed August 11, 2023, http://vestoj.com/cult-status/.;

Lee Joyce Richmond, "When Spirituality Goes Awry: Students in Cults," Professional School Counseling 7, no. 5 (2004): 367, JSTOR; Jill Kauffman, "Hippies," in Hippies (n.p.: Infobase, 2009), Issues and Controversies in History.

[3] Kauffman, "Hippies,".

[4] Stephanie Coontz, Major Problems in American History (Belmont, California, United States: Wadsworth, 2011), 333-334.

[5] Where Have All The Flowers Gone, performed by Peter Seeger, 1955.

[6] "Hippies: Where Have All the Flowers Gone?," Time (New York City, New York, United States), October 13, 1967.

[7] "Harris Show to Feature Campus Fashions," The San Bernardino County Sun (San Bernardino, California, United States), August 8, 1965, 10.

[8] Joan Cook, "Migrant Hippies Are Just Runaway Children to Parents," The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi, United States), August 27, 1967, 3.

[9] "Harris Show," 10.

[10] Kansas City Times (Kansas City, Missouri), December 27, 1965, 7, America's Historical Newspapers.

[11] Craig Hansen, "Hare Krishna Strives To Establish Temple in Salt Lake," The Daily Utah Chronicle (Salt Lake City, Utah, United States), October 16, 1970, 145.

[12] John Robert Howard, "The Flowering of the Hippie Movement," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 382 (1969): 46, JSTOR.

[13] John Robert Howard, "The Flowering of the Hippie Movement," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 382 (1969): 46, JSTOR.

[14] Howard, "The Flowering," 47

[15] Howard, "The Flowering," 47

[16] Russell Duncan, "The Summer of Love and Protest: Transatlantic Counterculture in the 1960s," in The Transatlantic Sixties: Europe and the United States in the Counterculture Decade, by Grzegorz Kosc, et al. (n.p.: Transcript Verlag, 2013), 7, JSTOR.

[17] The Times They Are A'Changin, performed by Bob Dylan, 1963.

[18] Aberdeen Daily News (Aberdeen, South Dakota), December 30, 1969, 4, America's Historical Newspapers.

[19] Jeremi Suri, "The Rise and Fall of an International Counterculture, 1960-1975," The American Historical Review 114, no. 1 (2009): 47, JSTOR.

[20] E. Burke Rochford, "Recruitment Strategies, Ideology, and Organization in the Hare Krishna Movement," Social Problems 29, no. 4 (1982): 402, https://doi.org/10.2307/800029.

[21] Hansen, "Hare Krishna," 44.

[22] Coontz, Major Problems.

[23] Rochford, "Aligning Hare," in Nova Religio.

[24] Kauffman, "Hippies,” 1.

[25] Tom Carter, "'Hippies' Revel in Unreal," Dallas Morning News (Dallas, Texas), December 16, 1966, 27, America's Historical Newspapers.

[26] Joan Cook, "Migrant Hippies Are Just Runaway Children to Parents," The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi, United States), August 27, 1967, [Page 3].

[27] Joel Lobenthal, "Hippie Style," in Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion, ed. Valerie Steele (Detroit, MI: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005), 2: Gale eBooks.

[28] Lobenthal, "Hippie Style," 2.

[29] "LSD Part I," The Emporia Gazette (Emporia, Kansas, United States), May 5, 1966, 4; Lobenthal, "Hippie Style," 2.

[30] Gordon MacNah, "Hippie Commune Creates Fear, Distrust in Oregon Village," The Salt Lake Tribune (Salt Lake City, Utah, United States), April 27, 1969, 10.

[31] Joel Lobenthal, "Hippie Style," in Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion, ed. Valerie Steele (Detroit, MI: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005), 2:, Gale eBooks.

[32] Ingrid Loschek, "Twentieth-Century Fashion," in Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion, ed. Valerie Steele (Detroit, MI: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005), 3: 349, Gale eBooks.

[33] Columbus Daily Enquirer (Columbus, Georgia), December 31, 1959, 6, America's Historical Newspapers.

[34] Rochford, "Aligning Hare," in Nova Religio.

[35] Serge Balkin, Model Standing, Wearing a Dress, March 15, 1950, photograph, ARTstor..

[36] Lee Joyce Richmond, "When Spirituality Goes Awry: Students in Cults," Professional School Counseling 7, no. 5 (2004): 368, JSTOR.

[37] Jonathan Van Ness and Sarah C. Byrd, episode 287, "How Do Cults Fashion Themselves? With Sarah C. Byrd," October 19, 2022, in Getting Curious, podcast, audio, accessed August 11, 2023, https://www.earwolf.com/episode/how-do-cults-fashion-themselves-with-sarah-c-byrd-2/.

[38] Jonathan Van Ness and Sarah C. Byrd, episode 287, "How Do Cults Fashion Themselves? With Sarah C. Byrd," October 19, 2022, in Getting Curious, podcast, audio, accessed August 11, 2023, https://www.earwolf.com/episode/how-do-cults-fashion-themselves-with-sarah-c-byrd-2/.

[39] Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, "Deprogramming, Brainwashing and the Medicalization of Deviant Religious Groups," Social Problems 29, no. 3 (1982): 284, https://doi.org/10.2307/800160.

[40] Jill Watts, "Cults," in Dictionary of American History, 3rd ed., ed. Stanley I. Kutler (New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2003), 2: 477, Gale eBooks.

[41] "14 Nude Hippies Found beside a Wayward Bus," Oakland Tribune (Oakland, California, United States), April 23, 1968, 14.

[42] Elisabeth Hackspiel-Mikosch, "Uniforms, Occupational," in Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion, ed. Valerie Steele (Detroit, MI: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005), 3:, Gale eBooks.

[43] Lee Joyce Richmond, "When Spirituality Goes Awry: Students in Cults," Professional School Counseling 7, no. 5 (2004): 367, JSTOR.

[44] Rochford, "Aligning Hare," in Nova Religio.

[45] George D. Chryssides, "Unrecognized Charisma? A Study and Comparison of Five Charismatic Leaders: Charles Taze Russell, Joseph Smith, L Ron Hubbard, Swami Prabhupada and Sun Myung Moon," Max Weber Studies 12, no. 2 (2012): 195, JSTOR.

[46] Rochford, "Recruitment Strategies," 402.

[47] Craig Hansen, "Hare Krishna Strives To Establish Temple in Salt Lake," The Daily Utah Chronicle (Salt Lake City, Utah, United States), October 16, 1970, 44.

[48] Hansen, "Hare Krishna," 4.

[49] "Cults," 8:1.

[50] E. Burke Rochford, Jr, "Aligning Hare Krishna," in Nova Religion, 44, previously published in University of California Press 22 (November 1, 2018), Project MUSE.

[51] Rochford, "Aligning Hare," in Nova Religio, 44.

[52] "Cults," in American Decades, ed. Judith S. Baughman, et al. (Detroit, MI: Gale, 2001), 8:1, Gale eBooks.

[53] UC Santa Cruz, "Death of Hippie: An end to the Summer of Love," University Library, last modified 2014, accessed March 30, 2024, https://exhibits.library.ucsc.edu/exhibits/show/love-on-haight/death-of-hippie#:~:text=Death%20of%20Hippie%20was%20a,underground%20newspapers%20and%20hippie%20clothing.

[54] Russell Duncan, "The Summer of Love and Protest: Transatlantic Counterculture in the 1960s," in The Transatlantic Sixties: Europe and the United States in the Counterculture Decade, by Grzegorz Kosc, et al. (n.p.: Transcript Verlag, 2013), 166, JSTOR.

[55] Julie Zauzmer, "After 50 years, Hare Krishnas are no longer white hippies who proselytize in airports," The Washington Post (Washington, US), October 27, 2016, accessed March 31, 2024, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2016/10/27/after-50-years-hare-krishna-believers-are-no-longer-berobed-white-hippies-who-drum-up-donations-in-airports/.