The Polish-Soviet War was a significant conflict from 1919 to 1921 that had momentous consequences for post-World War I Europe. The war began due to the rapidly-expanding Bolshevik Revolution, which threatened Poland’s newly-established independence just a year prior.[1] Poland’s eastern border was at stake, and Józef Piłsudski, the Commander of the Polish Army, had to fend off the socialist revolution that the Soviets were trying to spread.[2] Not only did this understudied war strengthen Polish nationalism, but, thanks to militarily crushing the Red Army, it allowed Poland to negotiate the eastern border and the boundary for socialism on terms acceptable to them.[3] The Polish-Soviet War played a crucial role in European history by solidifying Poland's independence and eastern border, sparking a resurgence of Polish nationalism and anti-Russian sentiment, and halting the spread of Soviet socialism in Europe.

The Polish-Soviet War was instrumental for Poland because it helped lay down its independence from Soviet aggression through decisive military victories and establishing a new government. Led by Poland’s Chief of State, Józef Piłsudski, one of the primary goals was to restore Poland to its pre-18th century state when it disappeared entirely from the map due to partitions.[4] The war initially went poorly for Poland with the vicious wrath of the Red Army, but as the tides turned in their favor, Piłsudski took command and led the drafting of the Treaty of Riga to establish peace and draw Poland’s borders.[5] The treaty initially drew Poland’s eastern border using the Russian “ten-verst” map, which accurately marked the boundary line, but caused distress as some villages were split across the border or even misplaced entirely.[6] Since the locations of various villages were incorrect on the map, questions were raised about who was in which nation.[7]

Drawing Poland’s eastern border was also a complex and challenging process due to the ethnic and religious diversity of the region east of the city of Białystok, which included Poles, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews, and many others.[8] This process was so difficult because “precise statistics of this country do not exist,” to quote the Polish Socialist Party.[9] The Poles proposed a new border that would retain more Polish-inhabited villages, but it was met with resistance from the Soviets.[10] Eventually, since the Poles obtained the upper hand in the war, they could force the Soviets to negotiate a new border that would be more favorable to Poland, exchanging unwanted territory with the Soviets.[11] One of the most significant exchanges was in the Polesie region, where 292 square kilometers of Polish-inhabited land was exchanged for 302 square kilometers of Belorussian, Jewish, and Soviet-inhabited land.[12] The final eastern border of Poland ensured that most of its inhabitants felt connected to the nation, and that people who identified themselves with the Polish nation would not be left behind.

The Polish-Soviet War was not just a fight for proper borders, but also a conflict of political beliefs. Socialism, which only won nine percent of the vote in Poland’s 1919 elections, had very little support in Poland[13]. This became clear to the Soviets over time, acknowledging that “communism is only possible in countries where the vast majority of the working people have the will to secure it by their own initiative.”[14] Despite the possibility that this statement from the Soviet government was a cover-up excuse for the Bolsheviks’ true surrender, it is significant that a large part of the resurgence of Polish independence and a favorable border drawing was due to the Poles’ lack of willingness to be subjected to socialism. As a result, the Soviets agreed that “The reorganization of Poland in accordance with the interests of the Polish masses must be the work of these working masses themselves.”[15] In addition to successfully establishing its independence and asserting military dominance over Vladimir Lenin and his troops, Poland experienced a surge of nationalism throughout the war.

Poland’s fight against Soviet aggression spurred a rebirth of nationalism and anti-Russian sentiment throughout the country. After many years of oppression and suffering under foreign rule, the Polish population desperately wanted to reclaim their independence and shape their future. Various political parties and groups united in a common cause under Piłsudski’s leadership, fighting for the freedom that was denied to them for far too long.[16] While Poland did gain official independence after World War I in 1918, imperialist Austrian and Prussian rule still lingered, and many Poles were still working to fight for true self-independence.[17] The war was crucial to this struggle. Piłsudski’s decisive victories on the battlefield and the establishment of proper borders helped solidify the Polish flag and inspire a new era of nationalism among the people.

The deep and distinct Russophobia and strong Catholicism among the Poles also created a strong national unity, which played a distinct role in their resistance to Lenin’s revolution.[18] Their long-time distrust of the Russians and deep passion for the Catholic Church fueled a unity to defend Poland’s independence. Through relentless military force and decisive battleground victories, the Poles forced the Soviets to acknowledge their national identity and admit that “the Russian workers and peasants have recognized the independence of Poland, and they have done this… not under the pressure of temporary conditions.”[19] This was huge for the Polish population, as the people were finally recognized as Polish people. Moreover, this recognition of Poland’s physical and cultural independence extended even to everyday Russian workers and citizens. This recognition provided pride and belonging to the Polish people, who struggled to regain their sovereignty for decades.

The recognition of Polish nationality even extended beyond Poland’s borders after the war. The Soviets conceded at the war’s end that “Russia and the Ukraine guarantee to persons of Polish nationality who are in Russia, the Ukraine and White-Ruthenia…all rights securing the free development of culture, language, and the exercise of religious rites,”[20] epitomizing the shift from Poland not being on the map to being legitimized by other nations. However, the Soviets’ recognition did not erase all worries. Lenin remained tentative about Poland’s military strength and feared a strong Polish nation in the future.[21] Despite these fears, Poland’s pivotal role in stopping the spread of socialism and Bolshevism during the war solidified its status as a recognized nation.

The defeat of the Bolshevik revolution in the Polish-Soviet War was a key factor in stopping the spread of Soviet socialism throughout Europe. The Bolsheviks’ initial aim during the war was to spark a socialist revolution in Poland, which would eventually spread across the continent, leading to a larger-scale revolution.[22] However, Poland’s military superiority over the Red Army led to its defeat, stopping other countries from being affected by socialism’s spread. Vladimir Lenin had hoped that success in the war would lead to a larger-scale revolution, particularly in the Proletariat working class, first in Poland and then in Germany.[23] He wagered that this would allow the Soviets to take over Europe and establish it as a single socialist union.[24] The defeat of the Red Army, as a result, was a rough blow to Lenin’s plans and prevented the spread of the Soviet socialist movement in Europe.

Due to the crucial importance of stopping socialist wrath from spreading, the Battle of Warsaw was arguably the turning point of the war in Poland’s favor.[25] After a catastrophic defeat in this battle and a pushback, the Red Army was no longer the same, with its soldiers suffering in their great losses.[26] To quote a soldier from the Red Army, “the uninterrupted fighting of the past month has thrown us out of gear. We live in trying circumstances – endless marches and counter-marches, advances, retreats. We are cut off completely from what is called civilized life…such conditions can make one despair.”[27] As the war dragged on, peace negotiations were drafted in 1920 and 1921, and the Red Army faced the harsh reality of their imminent loss. Despite Lenin’s original goal to capture Poland and spread his revolution westward, the Soviet government publicly backpedaled and denied having any intention of forcing socialism on Poland. “The Polish armies are wrong in thinking that the Soviet Government wants to force Communism on Poland because they don't believe Poland has enough will to live in Communism,” they stated.[28] “Russian Communists only want to defend their own land, and the Polish reorganization is to be held with the accordance of the Polish masses.”[29] While Lenin’s original goal was concretely to capture Poland and spread his revolution westward, it is interesting to see how losing the war led him and the Soviets to such defeat. While primary source examples of such statements are few and far between, the Soviet government mentioned to the British Labor Party in a letter that “The Polish workers and peasants, under the leadership of the Communists of that country, have risen again and again to prevent their capitalist government from making war against Soviet Russia,” illustrating Lenin and the Soviets’ goal to have a communist and socialist rebellion happen in Poland, making the job easy for Lenin to take over.[30] Additionally, the American Communist Party summarized Lenin and the Soviets’ intentions beautifully:

“The Polish workers and peasants, under the leadership of the Communists of that country, have risen again and again to prevent their capitalist government from making war against Soviet Russia. These workers and peasants are appealing to the workers of the world to come to the aid of Soviet Russia.”

This illustrates the true goals of the Bolsheviks in the war: to establish socialism as the best form of society and to spread it to the working class across Europe. Their goal failed, and they went as far as to deny any faint idea that they ever had a socialist revolution they wanted to spread. Throughout the war, Poland resisted and fought off the ravaging communists of Russia, not only keeping themselves out but also preventing a revolution across Europe.

The Polish-Soviet War was a significant turning point in European history, with far-reaching consequences that are still important today. Poland emerged from the war with strengthened nationalism and independence thanks to the efforts of its strong and committed army, led by Chief of State Piłsudski. Military victories also forced the Soviets to allow Poland to draw its eastern border to the best interests of the Polish masses, making the Polish-Soviet War a major catalyst for a strong and independent Polish nation. Moreover, the defeat of the Red Army had broader consequences, as it prevented the spread of Bolshevism and socialism westward across Europe, thus preventing socialist rebellions from taking hold in other countries. Lenin’s goal of conquering Europe under his Soviet Union was put to rest, and his denial of any desire to spread socialism to Poland at the war’s end showed the significant scar it had on Soviet wrath. Overall, the Polish-Soviet War was a powerful and pivotal event in history that continues to shape the history of Poland and Europe to this day.

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